INTRODUCTION

Birding, or birdwatching, has become one of Europe’s most popular pastimes and at whatever level one indulges in ornithology, whether it is making an in-depth behavioural study, searching for rare vagrants or simply looking at birds in the garden, a primary need is to identify the species of birds one is seeing. Great advances in the field of bird identification have been made in recent decades as ornithologists have concentrated on living birds as opposed to museum skins (although, in turn, the latter have now become widely recognized as an invaluable reference source for field ornithologists wishing to check the validity of new field marks, and have often alerted us to the existence of useful characters that were previously unnoticed). Since the publication in 1954 of the first edition of A Field Guide to the Birds of Britain and Europe by Peterson, Mountfort and Hollom, a landmark in the history of field identification that marked the beginning of the modern era, our knowledge has been transformed to such an extent that a great many identification problems that were once considered beyond solution can now be tackled successfully by the careful observer.

The aim of this book is to bring together as much of this accumulation of knowledge as is possible within the limits of a single volume and provide observers with a detailed, up-to-date guide to the field identification of every species known to have occurred in Europe and those parts of North Africa and the Middle East that fall within the boundaries of the Western Palearctic, including vagrant species and introduced species that have established apparently viable breeding populations. 

This guide is more comprehensive than traditional European field guides, illustrating many more plumages and a much wider range of species, and providing a much more detailed text. In its attention to the finer points of field identification it will, we hope, cater for the needs of today’s increasingly sophisticated birder. It is our intention not only to provide for the experienced observer, but also to help develop skills of the beginner through a thorough attention to first principles. For the latter we have provided extended family introductions, since establishing the family (or major subdivision within a family) to which a bird belongs is the fundamental stepping stone to identification at the species level.

Geographical Area
The geographical area covered by this guide is the Western Palearctic, a subdivision of the Palearctic zoogeographical region. Since they are now so well-established, we have followed the boundaries for the Western Palearctic as defined by Cramp & Simmons (1977) in the first volume of the monumental The Birds of the Western Palearctic, although it can be argued on faunistic grounds that western Iran and some other peripheral areas should also be included. The Western Palearctic so far as this guide is concerned consists of the whole of Europe, North Africa southwards to the central Sahara (including the Hoggar and the Tibesti), the Middle East eastwards to the border of Iran (but excluding most of the Arabian Peninsula), the Azores, Madeira, the Canary Islands, the islands of the Banc d’Arguin off Mauritania and the Cape Verde Islands (see map, page 10).

Birds recognize no man-made frontiers and inevitably the boundaries of any faunal region or subdivision must be rather arbitrary. From a zoogeographer’s viewpoint the Western Palearctic is a more natural faunal unit than Europe alone, since it is the Sahara and Arabian deserts, not the Mediterranean, that are the true southern boundaries of ‘Europe’. To the east, the Urals and the Caspian form a geographically convenient boundary (but one largely unrecognized by birds) between the western and eastern subdivisions of the vast Palearctic region that extends to the east across the whole of Asia north of the Himalayas and the mountains of central China.

Almost 900 species have so far been recorded from the Western Palearctic. This total includes some 600 breeding species, while most of the remainder are vagrants and therefore, by definition, only extremely rare visitors. One or more new species are being reported from the region annually and this trend looks set to continue. In this book, all those species reliably recorded up to the end of 1996 are included, apart from presumed escapes from captivity and species deliberately or inadvertently introduced into the wild which have not yet established viable breeding populations The assessment of records of rare vagrants is a complex and difficult problem, exacerbated in many parts of our region by lack of any local ornithological organization able to consider records of rarities. We have included a small number of species based on records which have not been assessed by any rarities committee, since none as yet cover the areas in question, but which we feel are likely to be valid. On the other hand, we have excluded a few species where we feel the evidence is insufficient to justify their inclusion.

A number of additional species are treated briefly in an appendix, which covers species that have only recently been recorded from our region, newly established introductions and species that have been omitted because all records are either erroneous or because they may well have been escapes. 

English Names
Many bird species currently have multiple English (i.e. vernacular) names. In recent years great advances have been made in standardizing these names (and in preventing overlap with the names for other bird species), although there will of course still have to be continued evolution to cater for new taxonomic interpretations. In this book we have mainly adopted the names used by Beaman (1994, Palearctic Birds: a checklist of the Birds of Europe, North Africa and Asia north of the foothills of the Himalayas), although we also list many alternative names in common usage.

Taxonomy
The most widely accepted taxonomic sequence and scientific nomenclature in Europe at the present time is that of Voous (1977) in List of Recent Holarctic Bird Species, which is the sequence and nomenclature adopted (with only a handful of exceptions) by Cramp et al. (1977–1994) in The Birds of the Western Palearctic. We have also followed Voous throughout, except in a small number of cases where recent research has established a good case in favour of change. Thus we treat:

Zino’s Petrel Pterodroma madeira and Fea’s Petrel P. feae as distinct from Soft-plumaged Petrel P. mollis
Yelkouan Shearwater Puffinus yelkouan as distinct from Manx Shearwater P. puffinus
Steppe Eagle Aquila nipalensis as distinct from Tawny Eagle A. rapax
Canary Islands Oystercatcher Haematopus meadewaldoi as distinct from African Black Oystercatcher
H. moquini
Pacific Golden Plover Pluvialis fulva as distinct from American (or Lesser) Golden Plover P. dominica
Yellow-legged Gull Larus cachinnans and Armenian Gull L. armenicus as distinct from Herring Gull
L. argentatus
Rock Pipit Anthus petrosus and Buff-bellied Pipit A. rubescens as distinct from Water Pipit A. spinoletta
Cyprus Wheatear Oenanthe cypriaca as distinct from Pied Wheatear O. pleschanka
Basra Reed Warbler Acrocephalus griseldis as distinct from Great Reed Warbler A. arundinaceus
Green Warbler Phylloscopus nitidus as conspecific with Greenish Warbler P. trochiloides

In these changes we follow the British Ornithologists’ Union Records Committee (1986, 1991, 1993) and/or Sibley & Monroe (1990, Distribution and Taxonomy of Birds of the World). In addition, we follow Stepanyan (1990, Conspectus of the ornithological fauna of the USSR) and others in treating the large gulls of the forms heuglini and taimyrensis (which have usually been treated in the past as subspecies of Lesser Black-backed Gull L. fuscus or Herring Gull L. argentatus) as a distinct species, L. heuglini, with the English name Heuglin’s Gull. Recently, the established classification of bird families and also much species-level taxonomy has been extensively challenged following the development of DNA-analysis. The increased use of the Phylogenetic Species Concept (PSC), as opposed to the more traditional Biological Species Concept (BSC), is also leading to new taxonomic interpretations.

Family and Species Accounts

Family IntroductionsThese introductory sections cover the characteristic features of the family, point out likely areas of confusion with other families and, in the case of the larger and more complex families, compare and contrast the characteristics of the different subgroupings. Finally, wherever practicable, we list the most important features to look for when trying to identify individual members of the family or a particular subgrouping. It is important to realize, however, that these lists of key features are generalizations and may not apply to some members of the family or subgrouping.

Species Headings
The English name is followed by the scientific name and the page number(s) for the relevant plate(s). Alternative English names that are widely used are also given.

Measurements
Measurements are given in centimetres (1 inch = 2.54 cm). The figures for length (L) are mostly taken from authoritative sources, predominantly Cramp et al. (1977–1994, The Birds of the Western Palearctic), and represent the length of museum skins stretched out on their backs and measured from bill tip to tail tip. In many species there are quite considerable variations in length between individuals, sometimes as much as 10% or more on either side of the median, while matters are further complicated by size differences between the sexes and between subspecies. To give a median figure alone can often be very misleading, especially if it is then used by observers as a means of separating quite similar-sized species. Consequently, we often prefer to give the full range of measurements.

Length measurements are most of use when comparing related species. Because bill length, neck length, tail length, posture and sheer bulk vary so markedly between families or even within them, a straight comparison of total length measurements can be quite misleading and can suggest, for example, that a Common Tern is similar in size to a Barn Owl, while in reality it is a far smaller bird.

For appropriate species we also give wingspan (WS). Wingspan measurements, based on the distance from wingtip to wingtip when the wings are fully extended, are necessarily estimates for most species, since museum skins cannot be stretched out to provide accurate figures and measurements of living birds are as yet insufficient in number. Nevertheless, we feel that even very approximate measurements are useful provided they are used with caution. When comparing species, no great significance should be attached to relatively small differences quoted for wingspan.

Wing lengths given in the species accounts (for use in the hand) refer to the distance between the carpal joint (or ‘bend of the wing’) and the wingtip. Measurements are made with the primaries flattened in order to obtain a maximum length.

Identification
Under this heading, the essential structural and plumage features, bare-part (also known as ‘soft-part’) colorations and ‘jizz’ which enable the species to be identified are discussed with reference to similar species (if any) with which it might be confused. Jizz is a useful term defining the subtle but characteristic ‘feel’ of a species that derives from a combination of its structure (i.e. shape and size), way of moving, behaviour and overall coloration (see the entry for ‘jizz’ later in this introductory chapter for a fuller explanation)./ With the exception of a few species where field identification is particularly difficult, we have excluded methods of separating species in the hand as these are outside the scope of this guide. For the sake of completeness, we have covered identification problems relating to juvenile plumage even for those vagrant species that are exceedingly unlikely to be seen in this plumage in our region. We wish to stress that all discussion of identification problems is restricted to those species and subspecies (races) that have been recorded in the region. Different problems may exist elsewhere but are outside the scope of this guide.

Throughout the species accounts, the following conventions apply when plumage or bare-part coloration is being described:
‘Wing coverts’ always refers to the upperwing coverts (as opposed to the underwing coverts)
‘Underwing coverts’ may include the axillaries
‘Secondaries’ may include the humerals in some long-winged species
‘Mantle’ may include the back and the scapulars
‘Rump’ may include the uppertail coverts
‘Vent’ may include the undertail coverts
‘Legs’ may include the feet


Sex/Age
Plumage, bare part or other features which allow sex or age determination in the field are covered here. If there is no mention of differences between the sexes, seasonal variation or differences between juvenile, immature (if any) and adult plumages then the differences are either very marked (and quite obvious from an examination of the plate) or else absent or very slight and thus unlikely to be noticeable in the field.

Size differences between the sexes are usually mentioned only where they are so marked that sex can often be determined in the field.

None of the current systems of plumage terminology used for birds is free from controversy. We have generally employed the terminology that is presently in most common usage in the Western Palearctic (i.e. adult, adult winter, adult summer, sub-adult, immature, juvenile, 1st-winter, 1st-summer, 2ndwinter, 2nd-summer etc.), even though some of these terms can be misleading. Adult ‘summer’ plumage in this terminology equates with ‘breeding’ plumage and is typically adopted well before the start of the breeding season (often in winter quarters in migratory species) and often lost well before the end of summer. Likewise adult ‘winter’ plumage equates with ‘non-breeding’ plumage and is often adopted by late summer or early autumn and lost well before the end of winter.

It is also important to realize that the term ‘1st-summer’ is conventionally applied to the summer plumage worn during the second calendar year of a bird’s life, even though most young birds have already lived through their true ‘first summer’ (or even their ‘first spring’ in the case of early-hatched individuals) in their first months of life. Similarly, the term ‘2nd-summer’ refers to the summer plumage adopted during the third calendar year, and so on.

For some larger species with slow-moving plumage development and no rapid changes in appearance the ‘calendar-year’ system of plumage terminology is more appropriate. Both systems are described in more detail in the ‘Moult and plumage terminology’ section later in this introductory chapter.

Voice
Bird vocalizations present those preparing field guides with their thorniest problem, for there is no effective way of translating complex sounds on to paper in a scientific, unambiguous manner which is easily communicable to others who are not already familiar with the vocalizations in question! Since most birders (including ourselves) find it extremely difficult to interpret sonagrams, which are electronically plotted diagrams of the frequency (pitch) and amplitude (loudness) of bird vocalizations over time, we have used phonetic renditions and other verbal descriptions. While these are highly subjective and open to misinterpretation, they seem to us to represent the lesser of two evils. We recognize that our attempts to indicate the loudness, pitch, duration, spacing and tonal quality are far from perfect. Experienced birders will already be familiar with many calls and will consequently find our descriptions easier to assimilate and compare than will the beginner. As many species have a wide range of vocalizations, we have concentrated on those which are most likely to be used to aid field identification. (For the sake of completeness, we have included songs and other vocalizations of vagrant species even where they are unlikely to be heard in our region.)

In the renditions of vocalizations the following conventions apply:
C is always pronounced soft, as in cease, not hard, as in cat (for which we use K).
S is always pronounced soft, as in sail, not hard, as in easy (for which we use Z).
Other consonants and vowels are pronounced as in standard English, but single vowels are always pronounced short (thus A is pronounced as in apple, not as in father, E as in extra, not as in scene, and I as
in ink, not as in island).

Capitalization is used to indicate the loudest sounds where the loudness of the call or song varies markedly during the delivery. We strongly recommend anyone with a serious interest in field identification to read the comprehensive and lucid survey of the problems, challenges and potential rewards facing those attempting scientifically to describe and interpret bird vocalizations in the first volume of The Birds of the Western Palearctic (Cramp & Simmons 1977). In particular, we should like to draw the attention of users of this book to the controversy over the presence of (or, if present, the identity of) consonants in bird vocalizations. We have used consonants in our renditions because they seem, to most human ears, to be present. We agree that it is often impossible to decide which consonant is present and that consequently, where consonants are given, they should be treated as no more than a suggestion of what kind of sound may be heard.

TaxonomyThe precise relationships between many closely related bird populations are still inadequately known, especially in the more remote and less studied parts of our region. In consequence, frequent changes to taxonomic status take place, with ‘lumping’ (the merging of one or more populations into a single species) and ‘splitting’ (the dividing off of one or more populations as full species in their own right) being proposed by avian taxonomists at regular intervals following new research. Any recent changes to the taxonomic status of the species in question are mentioned under this heading, as are most recent proposals to change the current status which have not yet received widespread acceptance.

Geographical Variation
Some species show no appreciable geographic variation in plumage or size, while others show marked and complex variation. In some cases, the variation may be clinal (i.e. gradual) from one region to another. In others, certain populations within the range of a species are considered to be distinct subspecies (or races), and sometimes these subspecies can be clearly differentiated in the field. The extent of this geographical variation and the different subspecies found in our region are discussed under this heading. We also indicate which particular subspecies (or races) are illustrated.

Unusual Variants
Where a species has one or more uncommon or rare plumages (caused by melanism, albinism or other factors), these plumages and any identification pitfalls associated with them are discussed under this heading.

Hybrids
This poorly-documented topic is mostly beyond the scope of this book, but some reported cases of hybridization between species which could impact on field identification are noted under this heading.

Status/Habitat
Abundance is briefly commented on under this heading. It should be kept in mind that abundance often varies considerably across the range of a species and that species are generally scarcer towards the periphery of their area of distribution. Even so, we feel that some indication of abundance can be of considerable value to users of this guide, since so many species do clearly fall into the categories of ‘very common’, ‘common’, ‘uncommon’, ‘scarce’ or ‘rare’ over all or almost all of their range in the region.

‘Vagrants’ are wandering individuals far from their usual breeding, migratory or wintering ranges and by definition are exceedingly rare. Some vagrants that originate outside the Western Palearctic, in Asia or the Americas, are recorded annually from the region and a few (e.g. Pectoral Sandpiper, Richard’s Pipit, Yellow-browed Warbler) are so frequent as to be considered regular visitors, albeit in very small numbers. Descriptions of abundance are of course quite subjective and so should not be taken too literally. Some species we describe as common are very widespread and numerous in a series of habitats, while others are only common in one or two specialized habitats and thus are much more localized. In addition, we freely admit that we are guilty of changing the abundance criteria from one family to another: thus, we give both Common Kestrel and Song Thrush the ‘common’ label, although the latter is clearly much more numerous than the former in most areas where they overlap. On a walk of a few hours through mixed woodland and cultivation in NW Europe in spring, one could expect to see (or hear) six or more Song Thrushes but might observe only one or two Common Kestrels. What we are trying to indicate is that Common Kestrels are ‘commonly encountered’ compared with most other birds of prey, which are much less frequent; we are not trying to give every species a numerical ranking that allows its absolute abundance to be compared.

Basic details of the habitats favoured by each species are also given under this heading. An excellent glossary of habitat types can be found in the first volume of The Birds of the Western Palearctic (Cramp & Simmons 1977). For most species, only those habitats utilized within the region are mentioned. Thus, for example, habitats utilized by migrants when south of the Sahara are not included. It should be remembered that preferred habitats do vary in different parts of the range of many species, while a migrating bird can turn up temporarily in quite atypical habitat, as can vagrants.

Although range maps are provided for all species other than vagrants from outside the region, we sometimes add supplementary information in the text where it cannot be adequately communicated by mapping (e.g. areas with occasional breeding or wintering, comments on migration routes where these are not obvious from the maps, or significant changes in breeding or wintering distribution in recent times).

Maps
Range maps are provided for all species that breed in the region, and for a few non-breeding visitors which winter or summer regularly within it, but not for vagrants. Breeding and wintering ranges are shown, but not areas of regular occurrence during migration (which for almost all species is the area lying between the breeding and wintering ranges).

Key to map features:
Deep green: species occurs throughout the year (and breeds)
Deep orange-yellow: species occurs only as a breeding (i.e. summer) visitor
Deep blue: species occurs only as a winter visitor
Pale green (at sea): species feeds in this area throughout the year (pelagic species only)
Pale orange-yellow (at sea): species feeds in this area during the breeding season (pelagic species only),
or during the summer/early autumn period in the case of non-breeding pelagic visitors from the South
Atlantic
Pale blue (at sea): species occurs in this area only as a winter visitor (pelagic species only)

Small-scale range maps are difficult to draw up accurately and can easily be misinterpreted. Their very small scale and resulting geographical simplification mean that the fine detail of bird distribution cannot be indicated, and the range of localized species, notably wetland birds, is consequently exaggerated. In the case of small islands which are too small to map, distribution cannot be indicated at all. (Note: To keep the maps as compact as possible, the Cape Verde Is have been moved northwards and the Azores eastwards of their true positions.) Changes in distribution take place over the course of time. These are generally slow-moving, but sometimes quite rapid range extensions occur (e.g. Eurasian Collared Dove, which has spread from the Balkans as far as the British Isles and Morocco during the 20th Century). Some species appear sporadically outside their regular range as breeding species, migrants or winter visitors, dependent, for example, on the occurrence of suitable nesting conditions, persistent winds during migration periods or an unusually good winter food supply.

Areas where species occur on migration (as opposed to breeding and wintering areas) are often difficult to map, for some species are rather infrequently recorded on migration due to their tendency to overfly the area in question or their secretive habits.

Example distribution map for a widespread land-based species, showing areas where present all year  (green), where present only as a summer visitor (orange-yellow) and where present only as a winter visitor (blue).

Example distribution map for a pelagic seabird species, showing areas where breeding occurs  (orange-yellow), where found at sea all year (pale green), where found only during the summer season (pale orange-yellow) and where present only as a winter visitor (pale blue).

The amount of information available on bird distribution in different parts of our region varies from highly detailed in NW Europe to non-existent in some very remote parts of the Sahara, with every possible intermediate stage in other areas. Even where basic information is excellent, precise mapping of a species’ range is impossible at the very small scale used in identification guides, where fine details cannot be shown. Any mapping exercise for the whole Western Palearctic region must therefore require many subjective assessments to be made, resulting inevitably in many cases of underestimation or exaggeration of the true range. The maps should therefore be interpreted with caution. In general, we have only indicated areas where each species is regularly found as a breeding species or winter visitor. Areas where the species is only a rare and occasional breeding or wintering visitor, a migrant or merely a vagrant are not mapped. Wherever it seemed particularly relevant, we have given supplementary information on range under the ‘Status/Habitat’ heading in the species accounts.

Plates 

For the great majority of species all major plumages are illustrated on the plates, with equal emphasis given to adult and immature, and male and female plumages. Two or more subspecies are depicted where variation within a species increases the possibility of misidentification, but have generally not shown subspecific variation where there is no possible risk of confusion with other species (e.g. Whitethroated Dipper).

All figures are of adults unless otherwise indicated. Names of subspecies (or races) are included only where two or more are illustrated and then usually only to indicate the figures of the ‘other’ subspecies (the uncaptioned figures refer to the subspecies we have selected as being ‘typical’, which is usually the nominate subspecies or some other well-known form: see under ‘Geographical Variation’ in the species account for details).

In species which show important changes in appearance owing to feather wear, the figures should be assumed to represent fairly worn-plumaged, or even well-worn, individuals unless it is specifically indicated that they are fresh-plumaged. In the majority of species, plumage is fresh in autumn and/or winter. The sequence of the plates follows the systematic order of the families so far as is possible, although some exceptions have been made through practicality or necessity in the case of very small families. The sequence of the species on the plates depicting each family often diverges markedly from the systematic order, however, as we have tended to group together similar-looking species regardless of their taxonomic position. To speed up cross-referencing between the plates and the text, the page number for the relevant species account appears next to the species caption on the plate.

Wherever possible all members of a family have been illustrated at the same scale. In some large and diverse families it has been necessary to use two or three different scales. Where this has happened, one or two figures of a well-known species from the larger scale plates (which depict the smaller familymembers) have generally been included on the first of the smaller scale plates to aid size comparison.

The following abbreviations are used: